Recent Advances in Dryland Agriculture

Kiran Yadav

(GBPUAT, Pantnagar)

Concept

      Indian agriculture is predominantly a rainfed agriculture under which both dry farming and dry land agriculture is included. Dry faring was the earlier concept for which amount of rainfall (less then 500 mm annually) remained the deciding factor for more then 50 years. In modern concept, dry land areas are those where the balance of moisture is always on the deficit side. In other words, annual evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. In dry land agriculture, there is no consideration of amount of rainfall. It may appear quiet strange to a layman that even those areas which receive 1100 mm or more rainfall annually fall in the category of dry land agriculture under this concept. To be more specific, the average annual rainfall of Varanasi is around 1100 mm and the annual potential evapotranspiration is 1500 mm. thus the average moisture deficit so created comes to 400 mm. this deficit in moisture is bound to affect the crop production under dry land situation ultimately resulting into total or partial failure of the crops. Accordingly the production is either low or extremely uncertain and unstable which are the real problems of dry land in India.

      The success of crop production in these areas depends on the amount and distribution of rainfall, as these influences the stored soil moisture and moisture used by crops. The amount of water used by the crop and stored in the soil is governed by the water balance equation: ET = P-(R+S). When the balance of the equation shifts towards right, precipitation (P) is higher then ET, so that there may be water logging or it may even lead to run off (R) and flooding. On the other hand, if the balance shifts to the left, ET becomes higher then the precipitation, resulting in drought in the various severity. Taking the country as a whole, as per meteorological report, severe drought as large area is experienced once in 50 years and partial drought in five years while folds are expected every year in one part of the country or the other, especially during rainy season. In fact the balance of the equation is controlled by the weather, season, crops and cropping pattern.

Status

      Out of 14.2 million ha of net sown area in the country, rainfed agriculture is practiced in 95 million ha (67%). Nearly 67 m ha of rainfed area falls in the mean annual precipitation range of 500-1500 mm.

      The average annual rainfall of the country is 1200 mm amounting to 400 million ha meter of rain water over the country's geographical area (329 m ha). However, the distribution across the country varies from less than 100 mm in extreme arid areas of western Rajasthan to greater than 3600 mm in NE states and 1100 mm from east coast 2500-3000 mm in the west coast. The broad area of the summer monsoon activity extends between 30⁰ N to 30⁰ S and from 30⁰ W to 16.5⁰ E. the detail information on rain fall and monsoonal pattern in India has been summarized in the following table:

Rainfall pattern in fall

      Rainfed farming comprises about 91% area of coarse cereals (sorghum, pearl millet, maize and finger millet), 91% pulses (chickpea and pigeon pea), 80% of oilseeds (groundnut, rape seed, mustard and soybeen), and 65% of cotton. Also, about 50% area under rice and 19% area under wheat is rainfed.

      During the past 25 years there occurred significant changes in the area and yield of imported crops of rainfed farming areas. The area under coarse cereals decreased by about 10.7 million ha and most of this was under sorghum. The area under oilseeds increased by 9.2 million ha and most of this increase was due to irrigated rapeseed and mustard and soybeen. The total area under pulses and cotton remained constant but more of cotton became irrigated and shifts in the area under occurred from one agro-ecological region to others. Area under chickpea in the northern belt decreased but increase in the central belt. This change occurred due to increase in area under rice-wheat cropping system which displaced chickpea and also pearl millet to a great extent and maize to a small extent.

      According to the present concept, there are 128 districts in the country which face the problems of dry land of these 25 districts covering 18 m. ha of net area sown with 10 % irrigation receive 375-750 mm rainfall annually spread over Central Rajasthan, Saurashtra region of Gujarat and rain shadow region of Western Ghats in Maharashtra and Karnataka. Twelve districts have irrigation covering 30-50% of the cropped area and do not pose serious problems. The remaining 91 districts covering mainly Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Haryana, Tamil Nadu etc., represent typical dry land area. The total net sown area in these districts is estimated to be 42 million hectares of which 5 m ha are irrigated. Rainfall in these districts varies from 375 to 1125 mm. therefore, more and more efforts are to be made for enhanced and stable production in these areas so that the recurring droughts do not stand in the way of meeting the growing food demands.

      It is not that no attention has been paid in the country towards the development of dryland farming. Efforts were made right from 1923 to improve crop yields with the establishment of a research projects at Manjari in Maharashtra and later at Solapur, Bijapur, Raichur and Hagari in Deccan and Rohtak (Haryana) in the north. An All India Coordinated Research Project for Dry land Agriculture was launched by ICAR in 1970 in collaboration with Government of Canada and later Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture (CRIDA) was established in 1985 at Hyderabad. These projects generated technology, which, if followed, can bring marked improvement in cropping intensity, productivity and stability in production.

Problems

      In dry land agriculture, scarcity of water is the main problem. Apart from the low and erratic behavior of rainfall, high evaporative demand and limited water holding capacity of the soil constitute the principle constraint in the crop production in dry land area. Yield fluctuations are high mainly due to vagaries of weather, often much behind the risk bearing capacity of the farmers. It is surprising to a layman that even humid areas with 2000 mm of annual rainfall not only suffer from moisture stress, but also face drinking water scarcity. Monsoon starts in the month of June and ends in last week of September or sometimes in the first week of October. Most of the rainfall is received during this period. With undulating topography and low moisture retention capacity of the soil, major portion of the rain water is lost through runoff, causing erosion and adding to the water logging of low lying areas. After the rain stops, very little moisture is left in the profile to support plant growth and grain production.

      In dry land area deficiency and uncertainty in rainfall of high intensity causes excessive loss of soil through erosion which leaves the soil infertile. Owing to erratic behavior and improper distribution of rainfall, agriculture is risky, farmers lack resources, tools become inefficient and ultimately productivity is low.

      vertisoles have high clay content and high moisture retention capacity. Owing to its swelling and shrinking characteristics, permeability is low and hence the rate of infilteration of water is minimum. This causes more surface and high soil loss from the top layer owing to surface erosion. It is estimated that 68.5 tones/ha per year soil is lost from vertisoles. Due to high clay content it develops cracks during Rabi season at flowering stage of crops.

      Alfisols are, by and large, light textured soils which have low moisture holding capacity but high water intake. The rain water falling in such areas gets soaked up and saturates the profile. The soil water percolation is more and therefore, is lost for crop use. Owing to faster intake of water in the profile the surface runoff is limited and soil loss from erosion is low (3.05 t/ha/year). Soil crusting is a common problem in low rainfall areas.

      Entisols are generally loamy sand or sandy loam. Depth in these soils is not a constraint. These soils have very low clay content and hold water up to 200 mm per meter of soil profile. Its nutrient holding capacity is poor. In low rainfall areas monsoon cropping is practiced and in high rainfall areas double cropping is possible.

      Submontane soils are medium in texture and depth is medium to deep as well as moderate in clay content. Moisture retention capacity is high (300 mm/m. profile). These soils are poor in nitrogen but in other nutrients. Phosphorous may be limiting in high production system. Due to high rainfall double cropping is possible in these soils.

      Sierozems are extremely light soils, effectively depth being influenced by the CaCo₃ concentration in soil profile. Its moisture holding capacity is low (150 mm water.m). Sierozemic soils are low in nitrogen and sometimes inadequate in phosphorous. Subsoil salinity is common. These soils are mostly monsoon cropped, except in deep sandy loams where post-monsoon cropping is also possible. Crusting is very frequent.

Improved Dryland Technology

      The improved techniques and practices, which have so far been generated and recommended for achieving the objective of increased and stable crop production in dryland areas, have been summarized in following lines.

Crop Planning

      The farmers of the dry land areas, prior to the development of dry land techniques, were growing a crop either on rainwater in kharif or on conserved soil moisture during the winter. The crop varieties grown when moisture is sufficiently available. Such varieties have low genetic potential for yield. Selecting suitable crops and varieties capable of maturing with in actual rainfall periods will not only help in enhancing production of a single crop but in intensifying the cropping intensity. Many criteria have been laid out for selecting a crop variety for drylands. The capacity to produce a fairly good yield under limited soil moisture conditions is the most desirable criteria. The duration of kharif crops/varieties should not normally exceed the number of rainy days. In other words, crop varieties for dryland areas should be of short duration, through resistant tolerant and high yielding which can be harvested with in rainfall periods and have sufficient residual moisture in soil profile for post-monsoon cropping.

      Under dry land agriculture determination of length of growing period (LPG) i.e., moisture availability of a given soil type, provides better index than total rainfall based crop planning. LPG is defined as the period when the moisture and temperature regious are suitable for crop growth and the period is determined by the FAO method (1983). The LPG is computed as the sum of the period when P is more than 0.5 PET plus time taken to utilize stored soil moisture (assured 100 mm) after P falls short of PET. For example 'Nagpur' and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra receive mean annual rainfall of 1120 mm and 2500 mm, respectively but LPG determination indicates that both the places have LPG of 210 days in deep black soils. Therefore, both the places are suitable for single long duration on a short duration crop with a relay rabi crop.

Planning for aberrant weather

      Dryland agriculture is subject to high variability in areas sown, yields and output. These variations are the results of aberrations in weather conditions, especially rainfall. Delays in normal monsoonal pattern causes problems of timing and the organization of preparatory tillage and other initial activities for commencing cultivation processes for the season. Such monsoonal delays have repercussions on the programme of activities for the entire agricultural year. Even after the onset of monsoon and the commencement of planting, there may be monsoonal withdrawal causing moisture stress on plants and creating difficulties in the adoption and timing of approval cultural practices ultimately causing reactions in yields and outputs.  Some crops are highly susceptible to such mid-season variations in moisture availability such as at the flowering stage in rice. Major crops like rice and maize get seriously affected if monsoonal rains cease early.

      The need for modifying and introducing and introducing new technology for increasing and sustaining yield in dry land areas can hardly be overemphasized. Equally urgent is the need to decelerate and ultimately eliminate the process of damage to agricultural assets which are proceeding unbated in dry land areas. Erratic rainfall results in fluctuating production. This in turn leads to frequent scarcities, like the ones experienced in Indonesia and Vietnam in 1977 which created severe food shortages. Droughts in China in 1972, 1974 and 1985 brought depression of food grain production by up to about 25 million tones. Frequent droughts in India during 1966, 1968, 1972, 1974, 1979, 1982 and 1987 seriously affected the food and fodder production in the country. Hence, it is necessary to understand the distribution of South-West monsoon within the season to determine the extent to which the crop productions are likely to be affected by the vagaries of monsoon.

      Several attempts have been made to understand the behavior of South-West monsoon rainfall in different agro-climatic regions on the basis of historical rainfall records. These studies (Singh, 1987, Ramanna Rao, 1988) have brought out that (i) there is large variation in dates of commencement of South-West monsoon from year to year in different parts of the country, (ii) the monsoon rainfall is of sequential nature with long dry spells or breaks extends sometimes to the period of even one month or more, (iii) there is large year to year variation in dates of withdrawal of South-West monsoon, (iv) there is variation in quantum of rainfall received from year to year and (v) high intensity rainfall occurs in association with movement of cyclones or depression resulting in sizeable loss of rainwater through run-off and deep drainage. Thus, crop production in dry lands fluctuates widely from year to year due to vagaries of weather. An aberrant weather can be categorized under three heads i.e. (i) delayed onset of monsoon, (ii) long gaps or breaks in rainfall, and (iii) early stoppage of rains towards the end of monsoon season. Therefore, to mitigate such weather situations, farmers should make some changes in normal cropping schedule for getting some production in place of total crop failure.

Crop Substitution

      Alternate crop strategies have been worked out for important regions of the country for vertisols, alfisols, entisols, submontane and sierozemic soils. Strategy has also been evolved for normal onset of rains, breaks in rains, early withdrawal, its uneven distribution; through selection of uneven crops/varieties which are inefficient utilize of the soil moisture, less responsive to production input and potentially low producers should be substituted by more efficient ones. Appropriate crops, suiting varying rainfall situations, have been identified for most of the dry land regions of India (Table 1).

      Crops which do not under normal rainfall years may not do so under abnormal years. Studies conducted in agro climatic conditions of Varanasi (eastern U.P.) revealed that under normal monsoon crops like short duration upland rice, maize, pearl millet, blackgram, greengram, sesame, pigeon pea etc. should be taken up on the basis of needs. These crops should be followed by chickpea, lentil, barley, mustard, safflower, linseed etc. on residual moisture during winter season.

      If monsoon sets in as late as second week of july, short duration upland rice (variety - NDR-97 and NDR-118) may be included in place of Akashi and Cauvery is recommended. If the rains are delayed beyond the period but start somewhere in last week of July or first week of August and growing season is reduced to 60-7- days, then cultivation of hybrid pearl millet (NHB 3-4, B.J. 104), blackgram (Type 9), greengram (var-Jagriti and Jyoti) may be included in pace of T-44 and k-851 etc. should be grown. Yet another alternative could be to harvest a fodder of either pearl millet, maize, sorghum or a mixture of cowpea, blackgram and one of the above fodder crops.

      In case monsoon rains stop early towards the end of season, normal sowing of short duration upland rice, blackgarm and sesame may be taken up. If the rain stops very early, i.e. by the end of August or first week of September, only fodder crops or grain legumes could be harvested. Depending upon the soil moisture condition, relay sowing of crops like chickpea, lentil, mustard, linseed and barley could be done in rabi season.

Table 1. Traditional and Alternate Efficient crops in Different Dryland Regions  of India

      During the recent drought, it was found that farmers in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra who went in for sunflower cultivation were in gainers. Sunflower succeeded where other crops failed. In other dry land regions, alternative efficient crops can profitably substitute the traditional ones (Table 2).

Table 2. Relative Yield of Traditional and Efficient Crops in Dryland Areas

      Dry land research has remained confined to important traditional crops such as sorghum, millet, pulse and oilseeds and has not explored the possibility of growing non-traditional crops such as dye-providing crops {e.g. Henna (Lawsonia inermis: mehadi) and jaffra(Bixa ovellana) species (0e.g. cumin), and medicinal value crops (e.g. eitronella, lemon grass, senna and isabgol)}. These crops need to find an important place in research aagenda of dry land farming.

      Time has come for the relevant researchers to plan a joint integrated research programme for maximizing the profitability, productivity and sustainability of learning systems of rainfed areas. Sericulture offers great promise in rainfed farming strategy, particularly of the watershed approach in peninsular India.

Efficient Cropping System

      Besides putting various measures to increase the productivity levels of dry land crops, efforts would also be needed to increase the cropping intensity in dry land areas which was generally 100%, implying that a single crop was taken during the year. Cropping intensities of these areas could be increased by practice of inter cropping and multi cropping (sequential) by way of more efficient utilization of resources. The cropping intensity would depend on the length of growing season which in turn depends on rainfall pattern and the soil moisture storage capacity of the soil. For example in Indore region, receiving 1000 mm annual rainfall, only single crop can be taken on shallow soils, inter cropping in medium depth soils and double cropping on deep soils. Similar crop combinations have been identified for different regions of the country. In dry land of Varanasi region upland rice-chickpea/lentil sequence can be practices with advantage.

      Inter cropping of vegetables with grain crops was pursued vigorously in some centers such as Varanasi and Phulbani. At both the palces long duration pigeon pea was inter cropped with vehetables such as okra, radish and chilli. Such inter cropping systems would be very useful to get maximum returns from rainfall agriculture. Even at solapur, leafy vegetables and some short duration beans were grown as intercrops during the rainy season.

Fertilizer Use

      Soils of dry lands in the country are not only thirsty but hungry also because these soils are severely eroded horizontly as well as vertically. Whenever efforts are made towards bunding and levelling of the fields in dry land areas, it is the surface soil which is removed. The resultant effect is that the fields are rendered shallow in depth and completely deprived of plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It is, therefore, necessary to apply all the three major nutrients in adequate amounts. Since soil moisture is limiting in dry lands, the availability of nutrients becomes limited, attempt should always be made to apply fertilizers in furrows below the seed. If seed-cum-fertilizer drills drawn by bullocks or tractors are available, this very objective can be fulfilled. There has been belief among the farmers of dry land areas that use of fertilizer increases the chances of crop failure but recent findings have shown that the use of fertilizer is not only helpful in providing nutrients to crop but also helpful in efficient use of profile soil moisture (Table 3). If dry land farmers are shown such results, they will be convinced to use ore and more fertilizers.

      Studies on the management of legumes in crop sequences for their residual effect indicated that in alluvial soils an advantage of 25-30 kg N/ha could be obtained in barley or mustard grown after black gram or green gram. Another possibility for nitrogen management in cropping system is to use legumes as green manures either at flowering stage or after one picking. Studies conducted at Varanasi centers clearly showed that general yield levels of barley and mustard were greater when legumes raised in the previous season was incorporated I soil after first picking as compared to that harvested at normal maturity (Table 4).

      In dry land areas, a proper mixing of organic and inorganic would be desirable. Organics have low nutrient content, but help to improve the moisture holding capacity of soils. In addition to yield advantage, nutrients like potassium help to increase drought tolerance by affecting plant-soil relationship. Transpiration losses are reduced and productivity per unit water increases.

Table 3. Effect of N-levels on Yield and Moisture Use Efficiency (MUE) of Barley and Wheat (Varanasi Centres)

Table 4. Nitrogen Economy to Legume-Cereal System (4 years average)

Rain water management

      Efficient management of rain water can boost agricultural production from dry lands. The broad bed and furrow system of the Inernational Crop Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) for managing rain water in vertisols made it possible to increase crop yields four to five times as compared to normal practice. However, this method could not be adopted widely by the farmers in India because it is costly and labour intensive. The vertical mulching developed at Bellary centres increases the infiltration of water in soil profiles and improves in situ moisture conservation. The scope for managing profile moisture is limited in alfisols but the surface run off in such soils can be reduced by ridge-and-furrow technique. Alternatively, application of compost and farm yard manure as well as raising legumes will add the organic matter to the soil and increase the water holding capacity.

      The winter which is not retained by the soil flows out as surface runoff. The run-off-recycling holds immense prospects in deep black soils where the seepage losses are very much less. This runoff water, if not permitted to drain out safely, causes erosion. Therefore, safe disposal of excess water from the field drains to the disposal system should be planned properly. This excess runoff water can also be harvested in storing dug out ponds and recycled to donor area in the event of severe moisture stress during rainy season or for raising crops during the winter.

Water-shed Approach for Resource Improvement and Utilization

      Watershed management is a holistic approach arrived at optimizing the use of lad, water and vegetation in an area and thus, providing solution to alleviate drought, moderate folds, prevent soil erosion, improve water availability and increase fuel, fodder and agricultural production on a sustained basis. On the basis of the experiences of ICAR Operational research Projects, which attracted the attention of our farmers, State departments, administrators and scientists, 47 model watersheds were established during the year 1983 for development, jointly by the Ministry of Agriculture, ICAR and various State Government Department and Agricultural Universities, in 16 states and then the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation launched the National Watershed Development Project for Rainfall Areas (NWDPRA) covering almost the same states. Out of these 47 model watersheds, the Central research Institute for dryland Agriculture (CRIDA). Hyderabad has been entrusted with 30 watersheds. These activities were in micro and mini-watersheds covering 500-2000 ha. Major components in these model watersheds are: (i) Improvement of water resources, (ii) In situ soil and water conservation : rain water harvesting for safe disposal of surface runoff, (iii) increase in cropping intensity and (iv) alternate land use system for efficient use of lands as per land capability to provide stability in productivity.

      The model watersheds in operation have provided a fruitful experience of how development can lead to all round improvement in food and fodder production, economic condition of the farmers. Sakho-majori model, where creation of eater source worked as a catalyst and triggered the development process can be repeated under similar situations. Similar experiences have been gained a Tejpura (Jhansi), Ariel (Bareilly District) and Tejpura watersheds which have been awarded the First and Second Prizes respectively by the President of India on 14-11-1988 based on the recommendation of National Productivity Council.

Alternate land use system

      All dry lands are not suitable for crop production. Some lands may be suitable for range/pasture management, while others for tree farming, ley farming, dry land horticulture, agro-forestry systems including alley cropping. All these systems which are alternatives to crop production are called as alternate land use systems. This system not only helps in generating much needed off-season employment in mono crop dry land but also minimizes risk, utilizes off season rains which may otherwise go waste as runoff, prevents degradation of soils and restores balance in the ecosystem.

   Crop production may be disastrous in the years of drought, whereas drought resistant grasses and trees could be remunerative. Scientists of dry land have developed many alternate land use systems which may suit different agro ecological situations. These are alley cropping, agri-horticultural system and silvi-pastoral systems which utilize the resources in better way for increased and stabilized production from dry lands.

1. Alley Cropping: for imparting stability and providing sustainability to the farming system, a tree-cum-crop system will be one most appropriate for such situations. One such system called 'alley cropping' - a version of agro-forestry system, could meet the multiple requirements of food, fodder, fuel, fertilizer etc. Alley cropping is a system in which food crops are grown in alleys formed by hedge rows of trees or shrubs. The essential feature of the system is that hedge rows are cut back at planting and kept pruned during cropping to prevent shading and to reduce competition with food crops.

For example, fast growing leguminous trees such as Leucaena leucocephala or liliricidia spp. are planted in rows. During the cropping season, trees are lopped at about 0.5 metre height. These loppings are used as much to reduce moisture loss and improve the nutrient status of soil. Arable crops like maize, rice, pearl millet, legumes, oilseeds etc. are planted in the alleys formed by the two rows of threes. This is also known as agri-silvi culture. Alley cropping is also a form of conservation farming which enhances soil fertility and prevents erosion.

One very strong argument in favour of alley cropping is its ability to produce usable material even in years of severe drought. At Rajkot in 1985, rainfall received during the season was only 30% of the normal. There was total failure of grain production of the three legume crops tried in the system. In sole crop plots production was limited to 5.0 q/ha to 17.0 q/ha of green fodder. However, in alley cropped plots, Leucaena hedge-rows produced over 50.0 q/ha of green fodder.

1. Agri-horticultural system: Agri-horticultural system palys an important role in dry land areas, especially in semi-arid regions where production of annual crops is not only low but also highly unstable. Fruit trees if suitably integrated in dryland farming system could add significantly to overall agricultural production including food, fuel and fodder, conservation of soil and water and stability in production and income. Dry land fruit trees being deep rooted and hardy, can better tolerated monsoonal aberrations than short duration seasonal crops. Hence, in drought year when annual crops usually fail or their production is highly depressed, fruit trees species yield considerable food, fodder and fuel.

A suitable example of agri-horti-system is growing of cow pea/green gram/horse gram in inter space of ber (Zizyphus mauritiaria) at 6 x 6 m spacing at Hyderabad. Phalsa (Grewia asiatica) may be planted in between two ber plants in a row with a view to intensify the system. A well managed dry land orchard of ber should give 50 kg fruits per tree/year. There should be 250 plants/ha for optimized production. The grow income would touch around Rs. 50,000/ha (250 x 50 x 4), assuming that one kg ber fetches Rs. 4. One could get an additional income of Rs. 800-Rs. 1000 from green gram/cow pea (2.5-3.0 q/ha).

1. Silvi-Pastoral System: This system is suited to marginal dry lands and is most preferable where the fodder shortages are experienced frequently. The system essentially consists of a top feed tree species carrying grasses on legumes (preferable perennial) as understorey crops. Dry land farmers having larger holdings and keeping a land follow for a longer period for one reason on the other, should go in for this system which could provide both fodder and fuel. In a survey carried out in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra by CRIDA scientists, it was revealed that after food it is the fodder which is of paramount importance for sustaining animal wealth in rural areas. In years to come, fuel will assume greater importance.

In August, 1981 Leucaena leucocephalla was planted in contour trenches 7.5 m apart, the plant to plant spacing being maintained at 2.0 m at CRIDA. Four strips at upper reaches of plot (2% slope) were put under Cenchrus ciliaris, while lower four strips were seeded with Stylosanthes hamata. The system has come up very well.

Efficient Implements

      In order to take full advantage of annual precipitation in dry land agriculture, higher doses of energy input is essential. Farmers in dry lands have been using traditional and outdated farm equipments which not only perform poorly but also demand a lot of energy and time and post-harvest operations. Farm implements can help to conserve as much rain water in situ as possible and to harvest rain water. Shallow off season tillage with pre-monsoon showers ensures better moisture conservation and lesser weed intensity. It has resulted in 20% yield increase in sorghum in Andhra Pradesh. Deep tillage helps in increasing water in soils having textural profiles and hard pan. This has resulted in 10% yield increase in sorghum and 9% yield increase in case of caster. For in-situ moisture conservation, land has to be opened so that it can cause hurdle to flow of rain water. Tillage machines of appropriate size and type matching the power sources need to be used. Location specific seeders have been developed for dry land areas and these have shown good prospects and promise. A feature of these machines is that the seeds and fertilizers are placed in the moist zone of the soil resulting in a high percentage of seed germination and good crop vigour. In deciding farm mechanization in dry land areas, where farmers are generally poor, and their socio-economic condition should always be kept in mind.

      The foregoing discussions show that technology of crop production in dry land areas have been generated to a great extent. What is important now is to view it in socio-economic context of the farmers. Once the technology is adopted by the farmers, the contribution of dry land areas to the total production can be sizably improved and the living standards of the farmers of these areas can be improved. This has been clearly shown in selected watershed areas and what is needed is to have more watersheds identified, proper technology to be developed and implemented.